Reformacija – razlika između verzija

 

 

The initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of [[Johannes Gutenberg|Gutenberg's]] [[printing press]] provided the means for the rapid dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and [[Calvinism|Calvinists]]. Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the [[Church of England]] decisively after 1547 under [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] and [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], although the Church of England had been [[English Reformation|made independent]] under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in the early 1530s for political rather than religious reasons.

The Roman Catholic Church responded with a [[Counter-Reformation]] initiated by the [[Council of Trent]]. Much work in battling [[Protestantism]] was done by the well-organised new order of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]]. In general, [[Northern Europe]], with the exception of most of [[Ireland]], came under the influence of Protestantism. [[Southern Europe]] remained Roman Catholic, while [[Central Europe]] was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the [[Thirty Years' War]], which left it devastated.

 

The oldest Protestant churches, such as the [[Unity of the Brethren|Unitas Fratrum]] and [[Moravian Church]], date their origins to [[Jan Hus]] (John Huss) in the early 15th century. As it was led by a Bohemian noble majority, and recognised, for a time, by the Basel Compacts, the Hussite Reformation was Europe's first "[[Magisterial Reformation]]" because the ruling magistrates supported it, unlike the "[[Radical Reformation]]", which the state did not support.

 

The later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to [[simony]], the selling and buying of clerical offices. The reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|Church's hierarchy]], which included the pope.

 

[[File:Muttich, Kamil Vladislav - Mistr Jan Hus na hranici v Kostnici 1415.jpg|thumb|upright|Execution of [[Jan Hus]], an important Reformation precursor, in 1415.]]

 

[[Pope Sixtus IV]] (1471–1484) established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, thereby establishing a new stream of revenue with agents across Europe.<ref name=Patrick1231>Patrick ''Renaissance and Reformation'' p.&nbsp;1231</ref> [[Pope Alexander VI]] (1492–1503) was one of the most controversial of the [[Renaissance]] popes. He was the father of seven children, including [[Lucrezia Borgia|Lucrezia]] and [[Cesare Borgia]].<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6909589.stm Fresco fragment revives Papal scandal]". BBC News. 21 July 2007.</ref>{{better source|reason=BBC isn't high quality for historical purposes|date=March 2015}} In response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote ''The Ninety-Five Theses''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/alexanderVI.htm|title=The Death of Alexander VI, 1503|date=2007|publisher=Eyewitness to History|accessdate=27 July 2014}}</ref>{{better source|reason=Eyewitness to History series is not exactly high quality|date=March 2015}}

 

[[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]], shown in a portrait by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]], initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.]]

 

Reformers made heavy use of inexpensive pamphlets as well as vernacular Bibles using the relatively new printing press, so there was swift movement of both ideas and documents.<ref name=Rubin270>Rubin, "Printing and Protestants" Review of Economics and Statistics pp.&nbsp;270–286</ref><ref name=AtkinsonFitzgerald15>Atkinson Fitzgerald "Printing, Reformation and Information Control" ''Short History of Copyright'' pp.&nbsp;15–22</ref>

 

Parallel to events in Germany, a movement began in [[History of Switzerland|Switzerland]] under the leadership of [[Ulrich Zwingli]]. These two movements quickly agreed on most issues, but some unresolved differences kept them separate. Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative, and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day [[Anabaptist]]s. Other Protestant movements grew up along lines of mysticism or [[humanism]], sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.

 

The Reformation foundations engaged with [[Augustinians|Augustinianism]]; both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of [[Augustine of Hippo]].{{citation_needed|date=February 2016}} The Augustinianism of the reformers struggled against [[Pelagianism]], a heresy that they perceived in the Roman Catholic Church. In the course of this religious upheaval, the [[German Peasants' War]] of 1524–1525 swept through the Bavarian, [[Thuringia]]n and [[Swabia]]n principalities, including the [[Black Company]] of [[Florian Geier]], a knight from [[Giebelstadt]] who joined the peasants in the general outrage against the Roman Catholic hierarchy. Zwinglian and Lutheran ideas had influence with preachers within the regions that the Peasants' War occurred and upon works such as the [[Twelve Articles]].<ref>Whaley, pp.&nbsp;222–23, 226</ref> Luther, however, condemned the revolt in writings such as ''[[Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants]]''; Zwingli and Luther's ally [[Philipp Melanchthon]] also did not condone the uprising.<ref>Whaley, pp.&nbsp;222–23</ref><ref>Yarnell III, pp.&nbsp;95–6</ref> Some 100,000 peasants were killed by the end of the war.<ref>Whaley, p.&nbsp;220</ref>

 

 

The Radical Reformation was the response to what was believed to be the corruption in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the expanding [[Magisterial Reformation|Magisterial]] [[Protestantism|Protestant movement]] led by [[Martin Luther]] and many others. Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation gave birth to many radical Protestant groups throughout [[Europe]]. The term covers both radical reformers like [[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]], groups like the [[Zwickau prophets]] and [[Anabaptists|Anabaptist]] groups like the [[Hutterite]]s and [[Mennonite]]s.

In parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority sympathized with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution.<ref name=horsch>{{cite book|last=Horsch|first=John|title=Mennonites in Europe|date=1995|publisher=Herald Press|isbn=978-0836113952|page=299}}</ref> Although the surviving proportion of the European population that rebelled against Catholic, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Zwinglian]] churches was small, Radical Reformers wrote profusely and the literature on the Radical Reformation is disproportionately large, partly as a result of the proliferation of the Radical Reformation teachings in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The European Reformation|author=Euan Cameron|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1991|isbn=0-19-873093-4|place=New York}}</ref>

 

[[File:Lutherbibel.jpg|thumb|Martin Luther's 1534 [[Luther Bible|Bible]] translated into German. Luther's translation influenced the development of the current Standard German.]]

 

Using the German vernacular they expressed the Apostles' Creed in simpler, more personal, Trinitarian language. Illustrations in the German Bible and in many tracts popularised Luther's ideas. [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] (1472–1553), the great painter patronised by the electors of Wittenberg, was a close friend of Luther, and he illustrated Luther's theology for a popular audience. He dramatised Luther's views on the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, while remaining mindful of Luther's careful distinctions about proper and improper uses of visual imagery.<ref name=Weimer387>Weimer "Luther and Cranach" ''Lutheran Quarterly'' pp.&nbsp;387–405</ref>

 

The following supply-side factors have been identified as causes of the Protestant Reformation:<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Becker|first=Sascha O.|last2=Pfaff|first2=Steven|last3=Rubin|first3=Jared|title=Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0014498316301085|journal=Explorations in Economic History|doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2016.07.007}}</ref>

* The presence of a printing press in a city by 1500 made Protestant adoption by 1600 far more likely.<ref name="Rubin270" />

* The presence of monasteries made the adoption of Protestantism less likely.<ref name=":3" />

 

 

The Reformation also spread widely throughout Europe over the next few decades.

 

Austria followed the same pattern of the [[German-speaking]] states within the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and Lutheranism became the main Protestant confession among its population. [[Lutheranism]] gained a significant following in Austria to a point where a big part of the population adhered to it. It was concentrated in the eastern half of the present-day Austria. [[Calvinism]] was less successful. Habsburg monarchy implemented the Counter Reformation and eventually got rid of Protestants, bringing the region back to Roman Catholicism.

 

{{main article|Bohemian Reformation}}

[[Hussites]] made up the vast majority of the population, and [[Lutheranism]] also gained a substantial following. Protestants were persecuted under the Habsburg monarchy, which controlled the region and eventually managed to recatholicize it.

 

{{main article|Reformation in Switzerland}}

 

 

==== Huldrych Zwingli ====

[[File:Ulrich-Zwingli-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Huldrych Zwingli]] launched the Reformation in Switzerland.]]

 

Some followers of Zwingli believed that the Reformation was too conservative and moved independently toward more radical positions, some of which survive among modern day [[Anabaptist]]s. One famous incident illustrating this was when radical Zwinglians fried and ate sausages during Lent in Zurich city square by way of protest against the Church teaching of [[good works]]. Other Protestant movements grew up along the lines of mysticism or humanism ([[cf.]] [[Desiderius Erasmus|Erasmus]]), sometimes breaking from Rome or from the Protestants, or forming outside of the churches.

 

[[File:John Calvin - Young.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[John Calvin]] was one of the leading figures of the Protestant Reformation. His legacy remains in a variety of churches.]]

 

The Reformation foundations engaged with [[Augustinians|Augustinianism]]. Both Luther and Calvin thought along lines linked with the theological teachings of [[Augustine of Hippo]]. The Augustinianism of the Reformers struggled against [[Pelagianism]], a heresy that they perceived in the Roman Catholic Church of their day. Unfortunately, since Calvin and Luther disagreed strongly on certain matters of theology (such as double-predestination and Holy Communion), the relationship between Lutherans and Calvinists was one of conflict.

 

[[File:Lucas Cranach (I) - Johannes Bugenhagen.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Johannes Bugenhagen]] introduced Protestantism in Denmark.]]

 

Under the reign of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick I]] (1523–33), Denmark remained officially Roman Catholic. But though Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, of whom the most famous was [[Hans Tausen]]. During his reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. Frederick's son, Christian, was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. In 1536, the authority of the Roman Catholic bishops was terminated by national assembly. The next year, following his victory in the [[Count's War]], he became king as [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] and continued the [[Reformation in Denmark-Norway and Holstein|Reformation of the state church]] with assistance of [[Johannes Bugenhagen]].

 

 

[[File:Workshop of Hans Holbein the Younger - Portrait of Henry VIII - Google Art Project.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] broke England's ties with the Catholic Church, becoming the sole head of the English Church.]]

 

Yet, at a popular level, religion in England was still in a state of flux. Following a brief Roman Catholic restoration during the reign of [[Mary I of England|Mary]] 1553–1558, a loose consensus developed during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], though this point is one of considerable debate among historians. It is this "[[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]" which largely formed [[Anglicanism]] into a distinctive church tradition. The compromise was uneasy and was capable of veering between extreme [[Calvinism]] on the one hand and Roman Catholicism on the other, but compared to the bloody and chaotic state of affairs in contemporary France, it was relatively successful in part because Queen Elizabeth lived so long, until the Puritan Revolution or [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century.

 

[[File:Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper.jpg|thumb|[[Oliver Cromwell]] was a devout Puritan and military leader, who came to power in the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland.]]

 

The original intent of the colonists was to establish spiritual Puritanism, which had been denied to them in England and the rest of Europe, to engage in peaceful commerce with England and the [[Native Americans in the United States|natives]], and to Christianize the peoples of the Americas.

 

[[File:John Knox preaching.JPG|thumb|[[John Knox]] was a leading figure in the Scottish Reformation.]]

 

Although Protestantism triumphed relatively easily in Scotland, the exact form of Protestantism remained to be determined. The 17th century saw a complex struggle between [[Presbyterianism]] (particularly the [[Covenanter]]s) and [[Anglicanism|Episcopalianism]]. The Presbyterians eventually won control of the [[Church of Scotland]], which went on to have an important influence on Presbyterian churches worldwide, but Scotland retained a relatively large [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Episcopalian minority]].

 

{{main article|Huguenot|Reformed Church of France|French Wars of Religion}}

[[File:Richelieu, por Philippe de Champaigne (detalle).jpg|thumb|upright|Although a Roman Catholic clergyman himself, [[Cardinal Richelieu]] allied France with Protestant states.]]

In the late 17th century many Huguenots fled to England, the Netherlands, Prussia, Switzerland, and the English and Dutch overseas colonies. A significant community in France remained in the [[Cévennes]] region. A separate Protestant community, of the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] faith, existed in the newly conquered (1639– ) province of [[Alsace]], its status not affected by the Edict of Fontainebleau.

 

[[File:Francisco de Enzinas-Nuevo Testamento.001.jpg|thumb|The New Testament translated by Enzinas, published in [[Antwerp]] (1543)]]

 

Reformation did not succeed in Portugal, as similar reasons to Spain prevented it from spreading.

 

{{main article|History of religion in the Netherlands}}

[[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Erasmus]] was a Catholic priest who inspired some of the Protestant reformers.]]

The Reformation in the Netherlands, unlike in many other countries, was not initiated by the rulers of the [[Seventeen Provinces]], but instead by multiple popular movements, which in turn were bolstered by the arrival of Protestant refugees from other parts of the continent. While the [[Anabaptist]] movement enjoyed popularity in the region in the early decades of the Reformation, Calvinism, in the form of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]], became the dominant Protestant faith in the country from the 1560s onward.

 

 

Harsh [[Inquisition of the Netherlands|persecution]] of Protestants by the Spanish government of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] contributed to a desire for independence in the provinces, which led to the [[Eighty Years' War]] and, eventually, the separation of the largely Protestant [[Dutch Republic]] from the Roman Catholic-dominated [[Southern Netherlands]] (present-day [[Belgium]]).

 

 

[[Luxembourg]], a part of the Spanish Netherlands, remained Roman Catholic.

 

[[File:4k ref portre bocskai.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Stephen Bocskay]] prevented the Holy Roman Emperor from imposing Roman Catholicism on Hungarians.]]

 

There were a series of other successful and unsuccessful anti-Habsburg (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian denominations) uprisings between 1604 and 1711; the uprisings were usually organised from Transylvania. The constrained Habsburg Counter-Reformation efforts in the 17th century reconverted the majority of the kingdom to Roman Catholicism.

 

[[File:Maria Tudor1.jpg|160px|thumb|A devout Roman Catholic, [[Mary I of England]] started the first [[Plantations of Ireland]], which, ironically, soon came to be associated with Protestantism.]]

The Reformation in Ireland was a movement for the reform of religious life and institutions that was introduced into Ireland by the English administration at the behest of King Henry VIII of England. His desire for an annulment of his marriage was known as the [[King's Great Matter]]. Ultimately [[Pope Clement VII]] refused the petition; consequently it became necessary for the King to assert his lordship over the Roman Catholic Church in his realm to give legal effect to his wishes. The [[English Parliament]] confirmed the King's supremacy over the Church in the Kingdom of England. This challenge to [[Papal supremacy]] resulted in a breach with the Roman Catholic Church. By 1541, the [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish Parliament]] had agreed to the change in status of the country from that of a [[Lordship of Ireland|Lordship]] to that of [[Kingdom of Ireland]].

Unlike similar movements for religious reform on the continent of Europe, the various phases of the English Reformation as it developed in Ireland were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion in England gradually accommodated itself. However, a number of factors complicated the adoption of the religious innovations in Ireland; the majority of the population there adhered to the Roman Catholic Church. However, in the city of [[Dublin]] the reformation took hold under the auspices of [[George Browne (Archbishop of Dublin)]].

 

{{further information|Reformation in Italy}}

[[File:Waldenser-Wappen.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Waldensian symbol ''Lux lucet in tenebris'' ("Light glows in the darkness")]]

In 1532 the [[Waldensians]] adhered to the Reformation, adopting the Calvinist theology. The [[Waldensian Church]] survived in the [[Western Alps]] through many persecutions and remains a Protestant church in Italy.<ref name=Wald>Cameron ''Reformation of the Heretics''{{page needed|date=March 2015}}</ref>

 

[[File:Johannes a Lasco.JPG|200px|thumb|[[Jan Łaski]] sought unity between various Christian churches in the Commonwealth, and participated in the English Reformation.]]

In the first half of the 16th century, the enormous [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was a country of many creeds, but Roman Catholic Church remained the dominating religion. Reformation reached Poland in the 1520s, and quickly gained popularity among mostly German-speaking inhabitants of such major cities as [[Gdańsk]], [[Toruń]] and [[Elbląg]]. In [[Koenigsberg]], in 1530, a Polish-language edition of [[Luther's Small Catechism]] was published. The [[Duchy of Prussia]], which was a Polish [[fief]], emerged as a key center of the movement, with numerous publishing houses issuing not only Bibles, but also catechisms, in German, Polish and Lithuanian.

Among most important Protestants of the Commonwealth, there are such names, as [[Mikołaj Rej]], [[Marcin Czechowic]], [[Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski]] and [[Symon Budny]].

 

[[File:Primoz-Trubar.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Primož Trubar]]]]

[[Primož Trubar]] is notable for consolidating the [[Slovene language]] and is considered to be the key figure of Slovenian cultural history and in many aspects a major Slovene historical personality.<ref name="Voglar I">{{cite news |url=http://www.locutio.si/index.php?no=42&clanek=990 |title=Primož Trubar v enciklopedijah in leksikonih I |language=Slovenian |trans_title=Primož Trubar in Encyclopedias and Lexicons I |journal=Locutio |volume=11 |issue=42 |date=30 May 2008 |first=Dušan |last=Voglar |accessdate=7 February 2011 |publisher=Maribor Literary Society}}</ref> He was the key figure of the Protestant Church of the [[Slovene Lands]], as he was its founder and its first superintendent. The first books in Slovene, ''[[Catechismus]]'' and ''[[Abecedarium (Trubar)|Abecedarium]]'', were written by Trubar.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.srl.si/sql_pdf/SRL_2013_4_01.pdf |title=Nova odkritja o slovenski protestantiki |language=Slovenian|trans_title=New Discoveries About the Slovene Protestant Literature |first=Kozma |last=Ahačič |journal=Slavistična revija |volume=61 |date=2013 |issue=4 |pages=543–555}}</ref>

 

The Protestant teachings of the Western Church were also briefly adopted by Eastern Orthodox Church through the [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Patriarch of Constantinople|Patriarch]] [[Cyril Lucaris]] in 1629 with the publishing of the ''Confessio '' (Calvinistic doctrine) in [[Geneva]]. Motivating factors in their decision to adopt aspects of the Reformation included the [[East–West Schism|historical rivalry]] and mistrust between the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and Roman Catholic church along with their concerns of [[Jesuit]] priests entering Greek lands in their attempts to propagate the teachings of the [[Counter-Reformation]] to the Greek populace. He subsequently sponsored [[Maximos of Gallipoli]]'s [[Bible translations into Greek|translation of the New Testament]] into the [[Modern Greek language]] and was published in Geneva in 1638. Upon Lucaris's death in 1638, the conservative factions within the Eastern Orthodox Church held two synods: the Synod of Constantinople (1638) and [[Synod of Jassy]] (1642) criticizing the reforms and in the 1672 convocation led by [[Patriarch Dositheos II of Jerusalem|Dositheos]], they officially condemned the Calvinistic doctrines.

 

There is no universal agreement on the exact or approximate date the Protestant Reformation ended. Various interpretations emphasize different dates, entire periods, or argue that the Reformation never really ended. However, there are a few popular interpretations that are used by large groups of observers.

 

*Some argue that the Reformation never ended as new spin-offs continue to emerge from the Roman Catholic Church, as well as all the various Protestant churches that exist today.

 

[[File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Treaty of Westphalia]] allowed [[Calvinism]] to be freely exercised.]]

The Reformation led to a [[European wars of religion|series of religious wars]] that culminated in the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648), which devastated much of [[Early Modern history of Germany|Germany]], killing between 25% and 40% of its entire population.<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics#ref=ref310375 History of Europe – Demographics]". Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Roman Catholic [[House of Habsburg]] and its allies fought against the Protestant princes of Germany, supported at various times by Denmark, Sweden and France. The Habsburgs, who ruled Spain, Austria, the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Crown of Bohemia]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], [[Slovene Lands]], the [[Spanish Netherlands]] and much of Germany and Italy, were staunch defenders of the Roman Catholic Church. Some historians believe that the era of the Reformation came to a close when Roman Catholic France allied itself with Protestant states against the Habsburg dynasty. For the first time since the days of Martin Luther, political and national convictions again outweighed religious convictions in Europe.

The treaty also effectively ended the Papacy's pan-European political power. [[Pope Innocent X]] declared the treaty "null, void, invalid, iniquitous, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all times" in his bull ''Zelo Domus Dei''. European sovereigns, Roman Catholic and Protestant alike, ignored his verdict.<ref name=ODCCWestphalia>Cross, (ed.) "Westphalia, Peace of" ''Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''</ref>

 

The following outcomes of the Protestant Reformation regarding [[human capital]] formation, the [[Protestant work ethic|Protestant ethic]], [[economic development]], [[governance]], and "dark" outcomes have been identified by scholars:<ref name=":0" />

 

* Higher capability in reading, numeracy, essay writing, and history.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boppart|first=Timo|last2=Falkinger|first2=Josef|last3=Grossmann|first3=Volker|date=2014-04-01|title=Protestantism and Education: Reading (the Bible) and Other Skills|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecin.12058/abstract|journal=Economic Inquiry|language=en|volume=52|issue=2|pages=874–895|doi=10.1111/ecin.12058|issn=1465-7295}}</ref>

 

* More hours worked.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Spenkuch|first=Jörg L.|date=2011-03-20|title=The Protestant Ethic and Work: Micro Evidence from Contemporary Germany|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=1703302|location=Rochester, NY|publisher=Social Science Research Network}}</ref>

* Divergent work attitudes of Protestant and Catholics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schaltegger|first=Christoph A.|last2=Torgler|first2=Benno|date=2010-05-01|title=Work ethic, Protestantism, and human capital|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165176509004418|journal=Economics Letters|volume=107|issue=2|pages=99–101|doi=10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037}}</ref>

* Income differences between Protestants and Catholics.<ref name="Becker 531–596"/>

 

* Different levels of income tax revenue per capita, % of labor force in manufacturing and services, and incomes of male elementary school teachers.<ref name="Becker 531–596"/>

* Protestant cities grew more.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Cantoni|first=Davide|date=2015-08-01|title=The Economic Effects of the Protestant Reformation: Testing the Weber Hypothesis in the German Lands|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jeea.12117/abstract|journal=Journal of the European Economic Association|language=en|volume=13|issue=4|pages=561–598|doi=10.1111/jeea.12117|issn=1542-4774}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://voxeu.org/article/protestant-reformation-economic-institutions-and-development|title=Origins of growth: How state institutions forged during the Protestant Reformation drove development|website=VoxEU.org|access-date=2016-04-26}}</ref>

* Different social ethics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Arruñada|first=Benito|date=2010-09-01|title=Protestants and Catholics: Similar Work Ethic, Different Social Ethic*|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02325.x/abstract|journal=The Economic Journal|language=en|volume=120|issue=547|pages=890–918|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0297.2009.02325.x|issn=1468-0297}}</ref>

 

* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the development of the state system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/8934.html|title=Nexon, D.H.: The Struggle for Power in Early Modern Europe: Religious Conflict, Dynastic Empires, and International Change. (eBook and Paperback)|website=press.princeton.edu|access-date=2016-04-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Philpott|first=Daniel|date=2000-01-01|title=The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0043887100002604|journal=World Politics|volume=52|issue=02|pages=206–245|doi=10.1017/S0043887100002604|issn=1086-3338}}</ref>

* The Reformation has been credited as a key factor in the formation of transnational advocacy movements.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Stamatov|first=Peter|date=2010-08-01|title=Activist Religion, Empire, and the Emergence of Modern Long-Distance Advocacy Networks|url=http://asr.sagepub.com/content/75/4/607|journal=American Sociological Review|language=en|volume=75|issue=4|pages=607–628|doi=10.1177/0003122410374083|issn=0003-1224}}</ref>

* Poor relief and social welfare regimes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pullan|first=Brian|date=1976-01-01|title=Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe|jstor=3679070|journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society|volume=26|pages=15–34|doi=10.2307/3679070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=kahl|first=sigrun|date=2005-04-01|title=the religious roots of modern poverty policy: catholic, lutheran, and reformed protestant traditions compared|url=http://journals.cambridge.org/article_S0003975605000044|journal=European Journal of Sociology / Archives Européennes de Sociologie|volume=46|issue=01|pages=91–126|doi=10.1017/S0003975605000044|issn=1474-0583}}</ref>

 

* Witch trials became more common in areas where Protestants and Catholics contested the religious market.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://economics.yale.edu/sites/default/files/witch_trials.pdf|title=Witch Trials|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>

* Protestants were far more likely to vote for Nazis than their Catholic German counterparts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kellogg.northwestern.edu/faculty/spenkuch/research/religion_nazis.pdf|title=Special Interests at the Ballot Box? Religion and the Electoral Success of the Nazis|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> Christopher J. Probst, in his book ''Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany'' (2012), shows that a large number of German Lutheran clergy and theologians during the Nazi Third Reich used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the anti-Semitic policies of the National Socialists.<ref>Christopher J. Probst, [http://www.ushmm.org/research/publications/academic-publications/full-list-of-academic-publications/demonizing-the-jews-luther-and-the-protestant-church-in-nazi-Germany ''Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germany''], Indiana University Press in association with the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2012, ISBN 978-0253001009</ref>

* Higher suicide rate and greater suicide acceptability.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Becker|first=Sascha O.|last2=Woessmann|first2=Ludger|date=2015-03-31|title=Social Cohesion, Religious Beliefs, and the Effect of Protestantism on Suicide|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2593731|location=Rochester, NY|publisher=Social Science Research Network}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Torgler|first=Benno|last2=Schaltegger|first2=Christoph|date=2014-06-01|title=Suicide and Religion: New Evidence on the Differences Between Protestantism and Catholicism|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jssr.12117/abstract|journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion|language=en|volume=53|issue=2|pages=316–340|doi=10.1111/jssr.12117|issn=1468-5906}}</ref>

 

Margaret C. Jacob argues that there has been a dramatic shift in the historiography of the Reformation. Until the 1960s, historians focused their attention largely on the great leaders and theologians of the 16th century, especially Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli. Their ideas were studied in depth. However, the rise of the [[social history|new social history]] in the 1960s look at history from the bottom up, not from the top down. Historians began to concentrate on the values, beliefs and behavior of the people at large. She finds, "in contemporary scholarship, the Reformation is now seen as a vast cultural upheaval, a social and popular movement, textured and rich because of its diversity."<ref name=Jacob215>Jacob ''Living the Enlightenment'' p.&nbsp;215</ref>

 

[[File:Das Vaterunser 2 Lucas Cranach d A.jpg|thumb|[[The Lord's Prayer]] in [[German language|German]] ''Das Vaterunser'' on a woodcut by [[Lucas Cranach the Elder]] during the Protestant Reformation under [[Martin Luther]].]]

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* {{cite book |last1=Atkinson |first1=Benedict |last2=Fitzgerald |first2=Brian |chapter=Printing, Reformation and Information Control |title=A Short History of Copyright: The Genie of Information |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YUW4AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02075-4_3 |isbn=978-3-319-02074-7 |date=2014 |pages= 15–22 |publisher=Springer}}

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=== Surveys ===

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* Fosdick, Harry Emerson, ed. ''Great Voices of the Reformation [and of other putative reformers before and after it]: an Anthology'', ed., with an introd. and commentaries, by Harry Emerson Fosdick. New York: Modern Library, 1952. xxx, 546 p.

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* {{cite journal |last=Bates |first=Lucy |title=The Limits of Possibility in England's Long Reformation |journal=Historical Journal |year=2010 |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=1049–1070 |jstor=40930369 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X10000403}}

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* [http://history.hanover.edu/early/prot.html Internet Archive of Related Texts and Documents]