Poljoprivreda – razlika između verzija
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[[Datoteka:Farmer plowing.jpg|thumb|290px|right|Zemljoradnja, [[Njemačka]]]]
Linija 41 ⟶ 42:
Povećana svest potrošača o pitanjima poljoprivrede dovela je do stvaranja poljoprivrede podpomognute od strane zajednice, lokalnih pokreta za hranu, spore hrane (suprotno od "brze hrane" - ''fast food'') i ulazak u komercijalnu upotrebu tzv. organske poljoprivrede, doduše još uvek retko.
==
[[File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - Natural Colour.jpg|thumb|[[Satellite]] image of farming in [[Minnesota]]]]
[[File:Precision Farming in Minnesota - False Colour.jpg|thumb|[[Infrared]] image of the above farms. Various colors indicate healthy crops (red), flooding (black) and unwanted pesticides (brown).]]
In the past century agriculture has been characterized by increased productivity, the substitution of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, [[water pollution]], and [[farm subsidies]]. In recent years there has been a backlash against the [[externality|external]] [[environmental awareness|environmental effects]] of conventional agriculture, resulting in the [[organic farming|organic]] and [[sustainable agriculture]] movements.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2013/04/history-nitrogen-fertilizer-ammonium-nitrate|author=Philpott, Tom|title=A Brief History of Our Deadly Addiction to Nitrogen Fertilizer|date=19 April 2013|accessdate=7 May 2013|publisher=Mother Jones}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=The World Bank|year=1995|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469372&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000009265_3970311122936|title=Overcoming agricultural pollution of water: the challenge of integrating agricultural and environmental policies in the European Union, Volume 1|accessdate=15 April 2013|author=Scheierling, Susanne M.}}</ref> One of the major forces behind this movement has been the [[European Union]], which first certified [[organic food]] in 1991 and began reform of its [[Common Agricultural Policy]] (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=European Commission|year=2003|url=http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/capreform/index_en.htm|title=CAP Reform|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> also known as [[Decoupling and re-coupling|decoupling]]. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as [[integrated pest management]] and selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include [[genetically modified food]].
In 2007, higher incentives for farmers to grow non-food [[biofuel]] crops<ref>{{cite journal|author=Smith, Kate; Edwards, Rob|date=8 March 2008|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/2008-the-year-of-global-food-crisis-1.828546 |title=2008: The year of global food crisis|journal=The Herald|location=Glasgow}}</ref> combined with other factors, such as overdevelopment of former farm lands, rising transportation costs, [[climate change]], growing consumer demand in China and India, and [[population growth]],<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0118/p08s01-comv.html|title=The global grain bubble|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|date=18 January 2008|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref> caused [[food security|food shortages]] in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Mexico, as well as rising food prices around the globe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/7284196.stm|title=The cost of food: Facts and figures|publisher=''BBC News Online''|date=16 October 2008|accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Walt, Vivienne|date=27 February 2008|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1717572,00.html|title=The World's Growing Food-Price Crisis|journal=Time}}</ref> As of December 2007, 37 countries faced food crises, and 20 had imposed some sort of food-price controls. Some of these shortages resulted in [[2007-2008 world food price crisis|food riots]] and even deadly stampedes.<ref name="guardian.co.uk">Watts, Jonathan (4 December 2007). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/dec/04/china.business "Riots and hunger feared as demand for grain sends food costs soaring"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref><ref name="timesonline.co.uk">Mortished, Carl (7 March 2008).[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/environment/article3500975.ece "Already we have riots, hoarding, panic: the sign of things to come?"], ''The Times'' (London).</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Borger, Julian (26 February 2008). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/feb/26/food.unitednations "Feed the world? We are fighting a losing battle, UN admits"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] posits that an increase in [[smallholding|smallholder agriculture]] may be part of the solution to concerns about food prices and overall food security. They in part base this on the experience of Vietnam, which went from a food importer to large food exporter and saw a significant drop in poverty, due mainly to the development of smallholder agriculture in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ifad.org/operations/food/farmer.htm|title=Food prices: smallholder farmers can be part of the solution|publisher=International Fund for Agricultural Development|accessdate=24 April 2013}}</ref>
Disease and land degradation are two of the major concerns in agriculture today. For example, an epidemic of [[stem rust]] on wheat caused by the [[Ug99]] lineage is currently spreading across Africa and into Asia and is causing major concerns due to crop losses of 70% or more under some conditions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/rust/stem/rust-report/stem-ug99racettksk/en/|title=Wheat Stem Rust – UG99 (Race TTKSK)|publisher=FAO|accessdate=6 January 2014}}</ref> Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.<ref>Sample, Ian (31 August 2007). [http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2007/aug/31/climatechange.food "Global food crisis looms as climate change and population growth strip fertile land"], ''The Guardian'' (London).</ref> In Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to [[United Nations University|UNU]]'s Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.<ref>[http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1214-unu.html "Africa may be able to feed only 25% of its population by 2025"], ''mongabay.com'', 14 December 2006.</ref>
Agrarian structure is a long-term structure in the [[Fernand Braudel|Braudelian]] understanding of the concept. On a larger scale the agrarian structure is more dependent on the regional, social, cultural and historical factors than on the state’s undertaken activities. Like in Poland, where despite running an intense agrarian policy for many years, the agrarian structure in 2002 has much in common with that found in 1921 soon after the [[History of Poland (1795–1918)|partitions period]].<ref>[http://www.agrojournal.org/20/05-03.pdf M. Pietrzak, D. Walczak. 2014. The Analysis of the Agrarian Structure in Poland with the Special Consideration of the Years 1921 and 2002, Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science, Vol 20, No 5, pp. 1025, 1038.]</ref>
In 2009, the [[Agriculture in China|agricultural output of China]] was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States, according to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (''[[Agriculture#List of countries by agricultural output|see below]]''). Economists measure the [[total factor productivity]] of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=USDA Economic Research Service|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/agproductivity/ |title=Agricultural Productivity in the United States|date=5 July 2012|accessdate=22 April 2013}}</ref>
== Radna snaga ==
{{as of|2011}}, the [[International Labour Organization]] states that approximately one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, are employed in the global agricultural sector. Agriculture constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries employs the largest percentage of women of any industry.<ref name=ILO/> The [[service sector]] only overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007. Between 1997 and 2007, the percentage of people employed in agriculture fell by over four percentage points, a trend that is expected to continue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/story/191279|title=Services sector overtakes farming as world's biggest employer: ILO|author=AP|date=26 January 2007|accessdate=24 April 2013|publisher=''The Financial Express''}}</ref> The number of people employed in agriculture varies widely on a per-country basis, ranging from less than 2% in countries like the US and Canada to over 80% in many African nations.<ref name=LaborForce>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2048.html|title=Labor Force – By Occupation|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|work=The World Factbook|accessdate=4 May 2013}}</ref> In developed countries, these figures are significantly lower than in previous centuries. During the 16th century in Europe, for example, between 55 and 75 percent of the population was engaged in agriculture, depending on the country. By the 19th century in Europe, this had dropped to between 35 and 65 percent.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://economics.ouls.ox.ac.uk/13621/1/uuid9ef3c3c6-512f-44b6-b74e-53266cc42ae2-ATTACHMENT01.pdf|format=PDF|title=Economic structure and agricultural productivity in Europe, 1300–1800|journal=European Review of Economic History|volume=3|pages=1–25|author=Allen, Robert C.}}</ref> In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.<ref name=LaborForce/>
=== Bezbednost ===
[[File:Ford Tractor with ROPS bar fitted.JPG|right|thumb|[[Rollover protection system|Rollover protection bar]] on a [[Fordson tractor]]]]
Agriculture remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, [[noise-induced hearing loss]], skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On [[industrial agriculture|industrialized farms]], injuries frequently involve the use of [[agricultural machinery]], and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is tractor rollovers.<ref name="aginjury">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/aginjury/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agricultural Injuries|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref> Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.<ref name=NIOSH_pest>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/docs/2012-108/ |title=NIOSH Pesticide Poisoning Monitoring Program Protects Farmworkers|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref> As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.<ref name="NIOSH Agri">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/agriculture/ |title=NIOSH Workplace Safety & Health Topic: Agriculture|publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate=16 April 2013}}</ref> Common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents.<ref name="NIOSH Agri" />
The International Labour Organization considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors."<ref name=ILO>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/info/standards-and-instruments/codes/WCMS_161135/lang--en/index.htm|title=Safety and health in agriculture|publisher=International Labour Organization|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=21 March 2011}}</ref> It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.<ref name=ILO2>{{cite web|url=http://www.ilo.org/safework/areasofwork/hazardous-work/WCMS_110188/lang--en/index.htm|title=Agriculture: A hazardous work|publisher=International Labour Organization|accessdate=24 April 2013|date=15 June 2009}}</ref> The organization has developed the [[Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001]], which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.<ref name=ILO/>
== Vidite još ==
* [[Historija poljoprivrede]]
==
{{Reflist|2}}
== Literatura ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Alvarez | first1 = Robert A | year = 2007 | title = The March of Empire: Mangos, Avocados, and the Politics of Transfer | url = http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28 | journal = Gastronomica | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 28–33 | doi=10.1525/gfc.2007.7.3.28}}
* Bolens, L. (1997). "Agriculture" in Helaine Selin (ed.), ''Encyclopedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London, pp. 20–22.
* Collinson, M. (ed.) ''A History of Farming Systems Research''. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 978-0-85199-405-5
* Jared Diamond, ''Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13,000 years'', 1997.
* Mazoyer, Marcel; Roudart, Laurence (2006). ''A history of world agriculture: from the Neolithic Age to the current crisis''. Monthly Review Press, New York. ISBN 978-1-58367-121-4
* Watson, A.M. (1983). ''Agricultural Innovation in the Early Islamic World'', Cambridge University Press.
* Wilhelm Abel: ''Geschichte der deutschen Landwirtschaft vom frühen Mittelalter bis zum 19. Jahrhundert.'' Ulmer, Stuttgart 1962.
* ''[http://www.bpb.de/files/DK819F.pdf Landwirtschaft] (PDF; 2,1 MB)''. In: ''Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte.'' 5-6/2010.
* Günther Franz (Hrsg.): ''Deutsche Agrargeschichte''. 6 Bände. Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1993ff.
* R. Hendler, P. Marburger, P. Reiff, M. Schröder: ''Landwirtschaft und Umweltschutz.'' Erich Schmidt Verlag, Berlin 2007, ISBN 978-3-503-09760-9.
* Manfred Hesse, Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Forsten: ''Statistisches Jahrbuch über Ernährung Landwirtschaft und Forsten 1990.'' Landwirtschaftsverlag, Münster-Hiltrup 1990, ISBN 3-7843-1357-4
* Ulrich Köpke: ''Umweltleistungen des Ökologischen Landbaus.'' In: ''Ökologie & Landbau.'' 2/2002, S. 6–18.
* Marcel Mazoyer, Laurence Roudart: ''Histoire des agricultures du monde: Du néolithique à la crise contemporaine.'' Seuil, Paris 2002, ISBN 2-02-053061-9. (engl. ''A History of World Agriculture: From the Neolithic Age to the Current Crisis.'' Monthly Review Press, New York 2006, ISBN 1-58367-121-8)
* Thomas Miedaner: ''Von der Hacke bis zur Gen-Technik.'' Kulturgeschichte der Pflanzenproduktion in Mitteleuropa, DLG-Verlag Frankfurt 2005, ISBN 3-7690-0645-3
* Eberhard Schulze: ''Deutsche Agrargeschichte: 7500 Jahre Landwirtschaft in Deutschland.'' 3. durchgesehene, verbesserte und ergänzte Auflage, Shaker-Verlag, Aachen 2014 ISBN 978-3-8440-2636-8
* Antonio Saltini: ''Agrarian sciences in the west.'' Florenz 2015
{{refend}}
== Vanjske veze ==
{{Commonscat|Agriculture}}
* [http://poljoinfo.com/index.php Poljoprivredni forum]
* [http://www.poljo.rs Poljoprivredni oglasi]
* [http://www.fao.org/home/en/ Official website] of the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) of the [[United Nations]]
* [http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome Official website] of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)
** [http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm Official website] of the USDA's Agricultural Research Service
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/agritop.htm Agriculture Research Guide] from the Government Information Library of the University of Colorado, Boulder
* [http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/agriculture Agriculture] material from the World Bank Group
* [http://www.bfs.admin.ch/bfs/portal/de/index/themen/07/03.html Bundesamt für Statistik – Landwirtschaft] (Schweiz)
* [http://www.blw.admin.ch/ Bundesamt für Landwirtschaft] (Schweiz)
* Statistisches Bundesamt: [https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/Wirtschaftsbereiche/LandForstwirtschaftFischerei/LandForstwirtschaft.html Daten zur Landwirtschaft] und [https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/WirtschaftStatistik/WirtschaftStatistikLandForstwirtschaft.html Beiträge zum Thema „Landwirtschaft“ aus der Monatszeitschrift „Wirtschaft und Statistik“ des Statistischen Bundesamtes] (Deutschland)
* [http://www.landwirtschaft.ch/de/ Schweizer Landwirtschaft]
* Peter Gaß: [http://www.der-landwirt-schafft.de/ Internetseite, die in Blogs, Fotostrecken und Filmen erläutert, wie der Landwirt schafft] (private Initiative)
* [http://www.meine-landwirtschaft.de/ meine-landwirtschaft.de]
* Greenpilot: [http://www.greenpilot.de/ ''Die virtuelle Fachbibliothek für Ernährung, Umwelt und Agrar'']
* [http://www.biotopfonds.de/ Initiative der Jägerschaften in Nordwestdeutschland zum Schutz der Arten der Feldflur]
* [http://www.regionfilm.de/ Dokumentationsprojekt zur regionalen Landwirtschaft. Hier wird die Lebensmittelproduktion unter die Lupe genommen]
[[Kategorija:Poljoprivreda| ]]
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