Nauka – razlika između verzija

Science in a broad sense existed before the [[modern era]], and in many historical [[civilization]]s.<ref>"The historian&nbsp;... requires a very broad definition of "science" — one that&nbsp;... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive&nbsp;... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." — David Pingree (1992), "Hellenophilia versus the History of Science" ''Isis'' '''83''' 554–63, as cited on p.3, [[David C. Lindberg]] (2007), ''The beginnings of Western science: the European Scientific tradition in philosophical, religious, and institutional context'', Second ed. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press ISBN 978-0-226-48205-7</ref> [[Modern science]] is distinct in its [[Science#Scientific practice|approach]] and successful in its [[science#Literature|results]]: 'modern science' now defines what science is in the strictest sense of the term.<ref name="Heilbron 2003 p.vii">{{harvnb|Heilbron|2003|p.vii}}</ref> Much earlier than the modern era, another important turning point was the development of classical [[natural philosophy]] in the ancient Greek-speaking world.

[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|170px|[[Aristotle]], 384 BC – 322 BC, - one of the early figures in the development of the [[scientific method]].<ref>"[http://www.pbs.org/saf/1307/features/knows.htm The Origins of Science]". ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''.</ref>]]

[[File:Brain, G Reisch.png|thumb|right|De potentiis anime sensitive, Gregor Reisch (1504) ''[[Margarita philosophica]]''. Medieval science mooted a [[Ventricular system|ventricle]] of the brain as the location for our [[common sense]],<ref>{{Citation

During [[late antiquity]] and the [[early Middle Ages]], the Aristotelian approach to inquiries on natural phenomena was used. Some ancient knowledge was lost, or in some cases kept in obscurity, during the fall of the Roman Empire and periodic political struggles. However, the general fields of science, or [[natural philosophy]] as it was called, and much of the general knowledge from the ancient world remained preserved though the works of the early Latin encyclopedists like [[Isidore of Seville]]. Also, in the [[Byzantine empire]], many Greek science texts were preserved in [[Syriac]] translations done by groups such as Nestorians and Monophysites.<ref name="history natural philosophy">{{cite book|last=Grant|first=Edward|title=A History of Natural Philosophy: From the Ancient World to the Nineteenth Century|year=2007|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-68957-1|pages=62–67}}</ref> Many of these were translated later on into Arabic under the [[Caliphate]], during which many types of classical learning were preserved and in some cases improved upon.<ref name="history natural philosophy" /><ref>Alhacen had access to the optics books of Euclid and Ptolemy, as is shown by the title of his lost work ''A Book in which I have Summarized the Science of Optics from the Two Books of Euclid and Ptolemy, to which I have added the Notions of the First Discourse which is Missing from Ptolemy's Book'' From [[Ibn Abi Usaibia]]'s catalog, as cited in {{harv|Smith|2001}}{{rp|'''91'''(vol.1),p.xv}}</ref> The [[House of Wisdom]] was established in [[Abbasid]]-era [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293631/Iraq/22884/The-Abbasid-Caliphate The ʿAbbāsid Caliphate]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.</ref> It is considered to have been a major intellectual center, during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], where Muslim scholars such as [[al-Kindi]] and [[Ibn Sahl]] in Baghdad, and [[Ibn al-Haytham]] in Cairo, flourished from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, until the Mongol sack of Baghdad. Ibn al-Haytham, known later to the West as Alhazen, furthered the Aristotelian viewpoint,<ref>A brief overview can be found at [http://www.jstor.org/stable/231249 Smith, A. Mark (1981), "Getting the Big Picture in Perspectivist Optics" ''Isis'' '''72'''(4) (Dec., 1981). via JSTOR]{{rp|p.728}}</ref> by emphasizing experimental data and the reproducibility of its results.<ref group=nb>*"The two greatest mathematical scientists, in the half-century to follow the translation movement [from Greek to Arabic], al-Biruni and Ibn al-Haytham, raised ongoing enrichment [of science] to another plane, no longer mixed with translation activity of any kind." p.55 —[[ H. Floris Cohen]] (2010) ''How modern science came into the world: four civilizations, one 17th century breakthrough''

*[[Nader El-Bizri|El-Bizri, Nader]], "A Philosophical Perspective on Alhazen's Optics", ''[[Arabic Sciences and Philosophy]]'' '''15''' (2005-08-05), 189–218

*{{Cite book|title = The Optics of Ibn al-Haytham. Books I–II–III: On Direct Vision|last = Sabra|first = A. I.|publisher = The Warburg Institute, University of London|year = 1989|isbn = 0-85481-072-2|location = London|author-link = A. I. Sabra}}{{rp|pp.25–29}}</ref> In the later medieval period, as demand for translations grew, for example from the [[Toledo School of Translators]], Western Europeans began collecting texts written not only in Latin, but also Latin translations from Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. The texts of Aristotle, [[Ptolemy]],<ref name="GerardOfCremona">The translator, [[Gerard of Cremona]] (c. 1114–87), inspired by his love of the [[Almagest]], came to Toledo, where he knew he could find the Almagest in Arabic. There he found Arabic books of every description, and learned Arabic in order to translate these books into Latin, being aware of 'the poverty of the Latins'. —As cited by Charles Burnett (2001) "The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century", pp. 250, 255, & 257, ''Science in Context'' '''14'''(1/2), 249–288 (2001). DOI: 10.1017/0269889701000096</ref> and [[Euclid]], preserved in the Houses of Wisdom, were sought amongst Catholic scholars. In Europe, Alhazen's ''De Aspectibus'' directly influenced [[Roger Bacon]] (13th century) in England, who argued for more experimental science, as demonstrated by Alhazen. By the late Middle Ages, a synthesis of Catholicism and Aristotelianism known as [[Scholasticism]] was flourishing in [[Western Europe]], which had become a new geographic center of science, but all aspects of scholasticism were criticized in the 15th and 16th centuries.